Using Developments from the Broader Field of Psychotherapy Essay Example

Using Developments from the Broader Field of Psychotherapy Essay Word count excluding front sheet and references: 4816 Introduction The purpose of this essay is to explore the development of the self in relationship within the person centred approach through drawing on developments within the broader field of psychotherapy. My principle intention is to explore intra-psychic and intersubjective understandings of self and form a view of a person centred understanding of self in relation to this dichotomy. I will argue that person centred theory was an original, if not revolutionary, approach to psychotherapy, the origins of which are found in phenomenological and existential thought rather than the scientific and medical roots of the psychoanalytic theory dominant at the time. I will describe how the person centred view of the self grew from the experience of how people changed and achieved growth through the therapeutic relationship. As such it was a truly relational theory from its inception and moved toward more clearly defined intersubjectivity through the development of therapist congruence, subjectivity and the wider systemic applications of the person centred approach. By contrast, the importance of relationship in psychoanalytic theory emerged over many years through a long revisionist path which led ultimately to a sharing of values between these two paradigms in respect of subjectivity and genuine encounter in which the subjective frame each participant is acknowledged. We will write a custom essay sample on Using Developments from the Broader Field of Psychotherapy specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Using Developments from the Broader Field of Psychotherapy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Using Developments from the Broader Field of Psychotherapy specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Nevertheless I do contend that both traditions inform and enrich one another and further suggest that this process is enhanced by recent developments in neuroscience. I will draw on the work of Carl Rogers in particular and contrast his work with that of theorists from the analytical tradition, including Bowlby, Winnicott and Kohut; from developmental psychology, Stern and Stolorow and from the existential / phenomenological tradition, Spinelli. I will include brief critiques from systemic and cultural perspectives and will also draw on my own practice to illustrate some of these themes. The Development of Self A Person Centred Context â€Å"This above all, to thine own self be true, and it must follow as the night the day, Thou canst then be false to any man† (Shakespeare Hamlet; Act1:Scene 3) Polonius’s paternal advice to his departing son Laertes suggests that being true to â€Å"thine own self† is the most important –â€Å"above all† – aspiration in life. The emphasis on â€Å"thine own† self implies that there might be other â€Å"selves† from which it might need to be distinguished. As the only organisms with conscious self awareness, understanding and knowing who we are is an exclusively human endeavour and is perhaps the most fundamental of our psychological needs. However, Shakespeare here suggests that for human beings, knowing their â€Å"own self† is perhaps more complex than it may seem. Carl Rogers readily acknowledged that, initially, he regarded the notion of â€Å"self† as a â€Å"vague ambiguous and scientifically meaningless term† (Rogers,1959a: p. 00) only changing his view later when he realised that â€Å"when clients were given the opportunity to express their problems and their attitudes in their own terms without any guidance or interpretation they tended to talk in terms of the self†(ibid) (Shakespeare, it seems, was able to recognise this human propensity more readily than Rogers. ) Always a committed empiricist, he began to research with â€Å"no reliance on a particular view of the truth† (Barrett-Lennard 1998 p. 61). His readiness to â€Å"take the phenomena as given† (May 1961b p. 60) and his â€Å"allegiance to processes by which the truth may be gradually approximated† (ibid) reveals his affinity to phenomenological thought. It is this aspect of Rogers’ approach which so fundamentally distinguishes his theory from psychoanalysis. The word â€Å"phenomena† is generally taken by philosophers to mean â€Å"the appearances of things as contrasted with things themselves as they really are† (Spinelli 1989) As human beings we attempt to make sense of and impose meaning on all our experiences and thus we create a subjective rather than an objective reality (phenomenology even questions whether any objective reality exists). Rogers came to recognise that the only reality that he should be concerned with was the inviolable subjectivity of individual experience† (Tudor Worrall 2006 p. 27). This does not make Rogers, in essence, a phenomenologist but it was the foundation of his view that empathic understanding and therefore relationship formed the context within which the development of the self takes place. Person centred theory was therefore conceived as a truly relational psychology where as psychoanalysis was concerned with intrapsychic drives and therapist interpretations of objective reality. Although he was primarily interested in change rather than causation (Kahn Rachman 2000), after many years of observation of change in his practice Rogers gradually became alienated from his traditional psychological training and he found that he needed his own theory of how the self formed and developed. â€Å"To explain and adequately connect the events of therapy, a view of human personality was needed. The events themselves were highly suggestive in regard to fundamental aspects of personality†¦and literal theory building began† (Barrett-Lennard 1988 p. 1) Relationship, especially in infancy, subjectivity, empathy and acceptance of the client’s frame of reference were to be the bedrock themes. Rogers’ Theory of Personality and Behaviour First appearing in 1951 (Rogers 1951), Rogers’ Theory of Personality and Behaviour was presented in the form of nineteen Propositions and reached their final and most comprehensive form in his seminal paper of 195 9 (Rogers 1959). At the very heart of Roger’s theory are the organism, which he clearly distinguishes from any notion of â€Å"self†, and the actualising tendency. The self is seen as a conceptual structure that emerges from the organismic context. The actualising tendency is described as the â€Å"one central source of energy in the human organism; it is a function of the whole organism rather than of some portion of it; and that it is best conceptualised as a tendency towards fulfilment, toward actualisation, toward the maintenance and enhancement of the organism† (Rogers 1963 cited in Merry 1999 p. 22) All of aspects of Rogers’ theory, both of development and change, rely on this view of the organism. The phenomenological influence on this theory and the importance of relationship in infancy are clear. The first three propositions in particular evidence his phenomenological perspective as they are sceptical of objective reality, embrace the subjective and delineate the relationship between what we perceive and how we behave (Tudor Worrall 2006 p. 28) In infancy, the self emerges from the organism as â€Å"a portion of the total perceptual field gradually becomes differentiated as the self (Proposition VIII) i. e. n the first few months of life an infant learns to recognise an identity separate from its mother. Continuing development of the self occurs when a part of an â€Å"individual’s experience is symbolised in an awareness of being† (Rogers1959 p. 224). These can be described as self experiences. Actualisation is maintained if those experiences which are perceived as enhancing of the organism are symbolised accurately in awareness. However, experiences which a re perceived as threatening may be distorted and perceived inaccurately in order to protect the organism. The continued development of the self will therefore be influenced by both accurate and distorted perceptions of experience. The emergent self develops the need for both positive self regard and the positive regard of others. The need for positive regard from others is so compelling that securing it may be at the expense of experiences which are of positive value in actualising the organism. This is critical for the infant. With an overwhelming need for love and positive regard, a baby may adopt behaviour that is guided not by the need to enhance the organism but by the â€Å"likelihood of receiving maternal love. Rogers 1959 p. 225). Rogers describes this process as the development of â€Å"conditions of worth† which result in the development of a self concept; an â€Å"organised set of characteristics that the individual perceives as peculiar to himself/herself† (Ryckman 1993 cited in Pescitelli 1996). Incongruence occurring at any time between experience and the sel f as perceived may result in â€Å"tensions and inadequate functioning† (ibid p. 226) and psychological distress. The process of mediation between the organism and self concept is lifelong. There is a danger here, I believe, of seeing these concepts in black and white terms i. e. organism good, self concept bad. â€Å"Self actualisation†, the role of the self concept as distinct from â€Å"actualisation† of the organism, in fact enables a move toward optimal psychological functioning (Tudor Worrall 2006 p. 90). It positively serves the organism’s tendency to actualise, by enabling individuals to organise and evaluate experience, mediate social relationships in family and society and balance organismic needs with the needs of others (Tolan 2002 cited in Tudor and Worrall 2006 p. 90). Merry adds to this argument by reminding us that the organism’s primary need is to survive and that it will â€Å"close down† any potentials which threaten survival (Merry 2003 p. 87). Cooper (2000) suggests that different concepts of the self can be formed in response to various individuals conferring positive regard for very different self experiences. Perhaps something like this was in Polonius’ mind with his emphasis on â€Å"thine own† self. Mearns (Mearns D 1999) also argues for a plurality of self concepts and points out that individuals often use the word â€Å"parts† to describe how they experience different dimensions of themselves. As new experiences and perceptions occur, or as experiences are differently perceived, the self is constantly open to change, including through therapy. In this sense the self is a process rather than a fixed or constant entity. The development of self in a person centred context therefore rests on the view that, given the right kind of relationship, people have the capacity to grow and achieve their potential through the continuous prompting of the actualising tendency and the mediation of the self concept. Other Perspectives of Self â€Å"The great questions of psychotherapy will never be definitely answered†¦. Nonetheless, †¦In spite of continuing sharp controversies and differences even among sympathetic colleagues, there is a growing unity of thought†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Kahn 1996 p. 19) Revisionists of classical Freudian theory began to put relationship, especially in infancy, rather than instinctual drives at the heart of what it is to be human. In effect, psychoanalysis began a movement toward the point where Rogers began. Nevertheless much of Rogers’ thinking is richly elaborated by these developments and there is evidence that he was influenced by some of them Melanie Klein(1882-1960), from observations of young children and parental figures saw early infant/mother relationship, to be critical in the development of self. Her theory of Object Relations, in essence contends that a child builds an interpersonal world (of object relations) from what is experienced in relationship, seeing external objects as â€Å"an ‘other’ that helps us experience the ‘I’† (Tudor Worrall 2006 p 88). Otto Rank (1884-1939), an associate of Freud, saw conscious will and purpose rather than unconscious instincts as being at the heart of humankind with â€Å"the client’s consciousness and meanings , (and) awareness of present felt experiencing (as) the vital issues in therapy† (Barrett-Lennard 1988 p. 355). Rank is, I believe, revealing here his own phenomenological position. Viewing creative potential as inherent in the make up of humans, he implied a form of growth principle somewhat analogous to the actualising tendency The work of Rank’s associate Jessie Taft (1880-1960) is also characterised by relationship with young children (Taft 1933). However, she was anxious to distinguish her approach from psychoanalysis â€Å"or any process in which either analytic or intellectual aspect is stressed, or the immediacy of the experience is denied or confused with history† (Taft 1933: xvi in Barrett-Lennard 1988 p 125). Using the term â€Å"relational therapy† to describe the essence of her approach, she too reveals here a phenomenological stance with recognition of the centrality of empathy and relationship. She precedes Rogers by almost a decade. Rogers both met Rank and Taft and read their work and their influence in the later development of his self theory seems clear. In further developing Object Relations theory, the British psychoanalysts Winnicott and Bowlby similarly placed relationship at the heart of human development. They too saw, as did Rogers, the infant mother relationship as the context for the formation and development of a self identity and further acknowledged that our internal and external experiences affect and are continually affected by each other. (Holmes 1993). Psychoanalysis was moving from a one person to a two person psychology. Winnicott, hinting at an inter-subjective paradigm, went as far as to say that â€Å"there is no such thing as a baby (Embleton Tudor et al p. 88). He meant by this that the baby must be seen and considered in the context of a â€Å"whole unit† (ibid) as mother and baby so profoundly and continuously affect one another through sensory experiences such as touch, tone of voice, gaze and holding. Recent developments in neuroscience reveal that identical activity in the form of mirror neurons is triggered in the brains of mother and infant as they gaze at each others faces. Schore 1994; Cozolino 2002) Essentially this is perhaps the beginnings of a scientific explanation of empathy and intersubjectivity. Further developments in this field are likely to lead to a re-examination of other aspects of psychotherapeutic theories and methodologies. â€Å"all of the disorders we have thought of as ‘psychologic al’ need to be reframed to include neurobiological correlates and mechanisms† ( Cozolino 2002 p. 319). Bowlby (1907-1990), developed what I consider to be perhaps the most significant development to have emerged from the analytical tradition in understanding how the self develops. Having studied, ethnology, anthropology and human bonding and culture, his major formulation of Attachment Theory (Holmes 1993) rests on the need for the close proximity of infant and parent in order for development, exploration and the process of individuation to continue. When the secure base (attachment) of the mother/infant relationship is undermined by an intolerable separation, anxiety is caused in the infant, which, if repeated or continued, can lead to the child becoming insecurely attached. Always seeking to make the best attachment possible, an insecurely attached child feels angry but does not dare attack the attachment figure for fear of retaliation and pushing the attachment figure even further away. Resultant feelings of both anxiety and rage are suppressed, lack of care becomes an expectation and the expression of any emotion is fraught with danger. These processes that begin in infancy and, if strengthened in later life, can lead to difficulty in establishing intimate relationships and maladaptive behaviour such as aggression, depression, substance abuse and self harm. This theory, largely rejected by the psychoanalytical establishment of the time as it saw the development of self as an external rather than an internal process (Holmes 1993) has had a worldwide influence in the field of childcare and social policy. It is broadly consistent with Rogers’ view of the nature and importance of the mother infant relationship but greatly enriches it. Rogers describes this process in terms of lack of positive regard leading to a distorting of experience by the self concept and a denial to awareness of organismic needs. This can lead to greater and greater incongruence and subsequently to delinquent behaviour and psychological distress. Kohut and self psychology is generally seen as offering the most significant revision of psychoanalysis (Kahn 1996) in terms of the move toward relationship and many of his views, radical in psychoanalysis, are consistent with Rogers’ theory. When he replaced interpretation and objectivity in psychoanalysis with empathy and subjectivity, analytical theory â€Å"could no longer define healthy functioning as a conformity to some objective reality† (Kahn 1996 p. 0). Kohut describes the infant’s needs in the analytical terms of archaic narcissism but believed they could be met through, what he termed, the â€Å"empathic attunement† of the parents to the infant’s experience. In this sense parents become â€Å"self objects† and the child begins to acquire other self objects from all its experiences. In Rogers’ theory the inf ant, through receiving accurate empathic responses, experiences positive regard from the parent and develops positive self regard. Kohut saw the self as developing from and close to a person’s experiencing. This â€Å"experience near† (Kohut 1984) stance compares to Rogers theory of symbolisation of experience. A robust sense of self and capacity for affect regulation is achieved through making â€Å"transmuting internalisations† of experiences when narcissistic needs are imperfectly met. This is analogous to the mediation between organism and self concept. It is perhaps surprising that Kohut nowhere acknowledges Rogers’ much earlier identification of the importance of empathic understanding. Nevertheless, both Bowlby and Kohut offer rich elaborations on the processes of early self development. By his focus on the subjective experience of the client, rather than objective reality, Kohut consolidated the move of psychoanalysis from a one person to a two person psychology. Towards Inter- subjectivity Rogers by this time had advanced the concept of therapist congruence in Person Centred theory which altered the balance of the therapeutic encounter from one characterised by therapist provided attitudes to the mutuality of two subjective worlds meeting in as real a relationship as possible. Although Kohut had begun to appreciate how therapist subjectivity impacted on the therapeutic encounter by creating a mutuality of reciprocal influence (Kahn 1996 p. 33), a fully intersubjective view on the development of self was yet to emerge from psychoanalysis. â€Å"A trend towards mutuality in relationship, towards a dialectic of meaning that had whispered along in the background, suddenly took voice in the work of intersubjectivists† (Sills 2007) The intersubjective â€Å"baton† is passed to developmental psychology. In a decisive move towards the notion of intersubjectivity and away from object theory Stern (Stern 1985) suggested that experiences jointly created in parent child relationships come to be owned by the child to form part of the sense of self. Describing such experiences as â€Å"representations of interactions that are generalised† (RIGS), they can be negatively or positively valued, but are jointly created experiences and not objects. Stolorow and Atwood . Stolorow Atwood 1992) go further and argue for an exclusively intersubjective theory of self. Describing intrapsychic drive theory and its derivatives as the â€Å"myth of the isolated mind†, they argue that all human development and experience occurs within an intersubjective context and that a child’s organisation of experience into a self structure â€Å"must be seen as a property of the child care giver system of mutual regulation† (ibid p. 23). They describe self regulatory competence as a system s competence. Invariant principles that unconsciously organise the child’s subsequent experiences are formed within the matrix of the child –caregiver system and become the essential building blocks of personality development. The therapeutic relationship is also seen as a system within the intersubjective field of the therapy where invariant organising principles can be adjusted. Ogden (1994) describes the therapeutic intersubjective field as â€Å"intersubjective analytic third† where a third subject is unconsciously co-created by the interaction between client and therapist and which each experiences through their separate personality system. I find that this concept, where the observer becomes part of the observed, makes a distinction between the truly intersubjective and other models of relational therapy. The two paradigms, psychoanalytic and humanistic, now shared many core principles which had been at the heart of person centred psychotherapy for almost half a century. It is remarkable how far ahead of the psychoanalysts Rogers was in appreciating the validity of the subjectivity of the client (Kahn 1996 p. 32) A Systemic Context Whilst seeing the infant caregiver relationship as a â€Å"system†, Stolorow and Atwood do not go on to explore the significance of all of the other systems to which it is connected. The mother infant relationship is a system within the nuclear family system which is in turn within the extended family system and so on so that society is seen as a structure of systems within systems. Change in one part of a system inevitably changes its other parts which then affect the other systems to which it is connected and so on. Pioneering systemic work in Italy in the 1980s (Palazzoli et al 1985) with people diagnosed with schizophrenia demonstrated that working with the family as a system of relationships alleviated the symptoms of the family member diagnosed with schizophrenia when more traditional individual approaches were not successful. It seems to me an irony that Rogers, who began to develop his theory of self from his experience of working with families, seems to have paid relatively little attention to the influence of the whole family system. Ironically, although person centred theory emphasizes empathic unconditional positive regard as the engendering force of psychotherapy, the theory tends not to recognise that force’s kinship with the emotional power of early family dynamics (Gaylin 2001p90) A cultural context A consideration of the systemic context of the development of the self inevitably leads to an awareness of the wider societal systems, national, cultural, political, in which we live and how they may effect the development of self. Western psychology, including person centred therapy, has developed within predominantly white European and North American cultures that traditionally value individualism. Many non-white cultures and Eastern cultures, by contrast, see the self as an integral part of something greater such as clan or community. It is important to recognise that these values are culturally defined and in predominantly white Western societies it is through the â€Å"subtle veil of whiteness† (Cornelius White and Anderson p5) that individualism is presented as an unquestioned norm. the ancestral worldviews of people of color emphasise positive interdependence and have inherent differences to those built on individual actualization†(ibid) The cultural context is therefore a powerful influence in the development of the self but has received little consideration in the theoretical views discussed here. â€Å"It was awful to be Negro and have no control over my life. It was brutal to be young a nd already trained to sit quietly and listen to charges brought against my color with no chance of defense† (Angelou 1984 p 176) Maya Angelou conveys powerfully here the impact of racism in her young life in the southern American state of Arkansas. In addition to an early separation from her parents she has also to resile against the â€Å"brutal† attack on her sense self as a Black child in a dominant white and far from â€Å"subtle† racist environment where the political system legislated for the denigration of Black people. In the latter part of his career Rogers continued to be far ahead of other therapeutic traditions in exploring the boundaries and application of his theories. He worked predominantly with groups and was active in cultural and political contexts such as peace-seeking initiatives in Northern Ireland and South Africa. Though always connected to individual therapy, he could perhaps no longer promote it in alienation from the environmental contexts of peoples’ lives. In terms of the development of self, he recognised the need to address cultural and religious dimensions as well as the effects of oppression, violence and poverty in society. The name ‘person centred therapy ‘ inadvertently hides a dismissal of the sociological inequities that often offer additional explanations for suffering rather than resting sole credit or blame with individualized conditions of worth (Cornelius-White and Anderson 2007p. 5) The Formative Tendency (Rogers 1980), formulated towards the end of his career, which takes a systemic view of the universe as a complex of connections and systematic order, can be seen as an â€Å"ecological revision† (Cornelius-White and Anderson 2007) of the individualistic actualising tendency thus providing a theoretical base for the wider application of person centred theory, the person centred approach, and it is broadly compatible with established systemic theory Individual or Intersubjective – a person centred view Stolorow and Atwood argue that as an individual’s world of inner experience is â€Å"embedded in an intersubjective context in a continual flow of mutual regulation,.. the gap between the intrapsychic and interpersonal world is closed and the dichotomy between them is rendered obsolete† (Stolorow Atwood 1992 p18). They view the self as entirely intersubjective in formation and development. However, in person centred theory the actualising tendency, and therefore the separate individual, still exists. This raises the question of how individual and intersubjective understandings of the self can be seen within a person centred context. I argue for a â€Å"both/and† position; a view that I suggest finds support in the phenomenological roots of person centred theory. The existential – phenomenological tradition contends that the self can only be defined in a relational sense (Spinelli 1994). Humans can only exist in the world and cannot exist alone and therefore human existence rests on the principle of relatedness. We cannot therefore understand or make sense of human beings – ourselves included on their own or in isolation but always and only through their inter-relational context. (Spinelli 2007) This also is a truly intersubjective view of the self. However, unlike Stolorow, existentialism also embraces a view of the individual self in the context of existential isolation (Spinelli1994) (Yalom 1980). Individuals can only experience the world in a unique way that cannot be completely shared by another. Recognition of our uniqueness inevitably brings an awareness of our aloneness or isolation. When we die we die alone. The moment that we die brings to an end our unique world of meanings, and the world that both defines and is defined by our being ceases to exist. Spinelli 1994). Stolorow Atwood dismiss such ontological aloneness as part of the â€Å"myth of the isolated mind† and as nothing more than a â€Å"calming vision† (Stolorow Atwood 1992 p11) built into the human condition as the common fate of all mankind which offers â€Å"reassuring illusions† (ibid) of self sufficiency and autonomy as a defence against interpersonal events over which the indi vidual has only limited control. I do not share this view and see an individual dimension of self arising, not from an intrapsychic process, but from a relationship to the givens of human existence. Whilst Kohut’s self psychology and Stolorow’s intersubjective position both clearly share the critical core values of person centred theory, the role of the actualising tendency presents a crucial difference which questions Kahn’s view (Kahn 1996) that they are â€Å"one at the core†. The actualising tendency is the core of person centred theory. In the person centred context, the intrapsychic and intersubjective dimensions are expressed by such terms as â€Å"actualising tendency† and â€Å"fully functioning person† (the individual dimension) and â€Å"relationship† and â€Å"encounter† (the intersubjective dimension) (Schmid 2001). The individual dimension defines what a person is; the intersubjective dimension describes becoming i. e. how a person becomes a person. Together they form the â€Å"distinctive characteristic of all person centred thinking(ibid). The self in a person centred context must therefore be seen as both intra-psychic and inter-subjective. People are both individuals and relationships. I suggest that the dichotomy of the intersubjective and intrapsychic will never become obsolete as long as human beings continue to understand and express themselves in terms of self. Autonomy and interconnectedness, independence and interdependence, self reliance and commitment, sovereignty and solidarity uniquely characterise the human condition† (ibid). In taking this view, I recognise that I am from a white Western culture. I am not arguing for its universal acceptance and I remain open to the different understandings of others. However, consistent with the phenomenological theme I have outlined, m y theoretical view of self arises from my own self experiences which I have attempted to symbolise accurately here. Conclusion In reviewing various theoretical positions in relation to the development of self, I have described how Carl Rogers created a new psychotherapeutic paradigm that arose from his phenomenological disposition which recognised the primacy of both the phenomena of subjective experience and the centrality of relationship in human development. The contrasting intrapsychic Freudian ego psychology, dominant at the time, and which pre-dated Rogers by many years, was gradually revised to incorporate many of Rogers’ core values in respect of subjectivity and relationship. Both paradigms subsequently moved towards more fully intersubjective positions. I have contended that systemic and cultural perspectives have been advanced more in person centred theory through the wider applications of the person centred approach but that both traditions have paid relatively little attention to these aspects. Traditional views of psychotherapy maybe either challenged or reinforced by developments in neuroscience as we are now aware that our brains organise the totality of our experience (Cozolino). It is perhaps an irony that psychotherapy, which has so steadily moved away from Freud’s scientifically driven approach, may now be returning to science for validation of its theories. Whilst fully embracing the concept of intersubjectivity, I have argued that the role of the actualising tendency is an intrapsychic process which must be reconciled with intersubjectivity in a person centred context. I have therefore concluded that self, in a person centred perspective, is both intrapsychic and intersubjective, that these are not mutually exclusive concepts and that this view distinctively characterises person centred thinking. Finally, I have argued that all concepts of the self, including, my own, are to some extent culturally defined and, therefore, a plurality of views will inevitably emerge from any exploration of the wonders of human development with the potential to enrich us all. Bibliography Angelou, M. (1984) I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings, London: Virago. Barrett-Lennard, G. T. , (1998) Carl Rogers Helping System – Journey and Substance London: Sage Cooper, M. (2000) Person Centred Practice Vol. 8 No2 pp 87-93 Llangarron: PCCS Books Cornelius-White, J. H. D. Anderson, A. L. 2007) Digging the White Soil of Person-Centred Therapy, Person-Centred Quarterly Feb 2007 pp 5-7, Ross-on Wye: British Association for the Person Centred Approach Cozolino, L. (2002) The Neuroscience of Psychotherapy, New York: Norton Embleton-Tudor, L. E. , Keemar, K.. , Tudor, K. , Valentine, J. , Worrall, M. (2004) The Person Centred Approach – A Contemporary Introduction, Basingstoke: Palgrave McMillan. Gay lin, N. (2001) Family, Self and Psychotherapy: a person-centred perspective, Llangarron: PCCS Books Holmes, J. (1993) John Bowlby and Attachment Theory, London and New York: Routledge Kahn, M. (1991) Between Therapist and Client, The New Relationship New York; Henry Holt Kahn, E. Rachman, A. W. , Carl Rogers and Heinz Kohut (2000), A Historical Perspective, Psychoanalytic Psychology Vol. 17, No. 2, pp294 – 312. Kohut, H.

Free Essays on Dangers Of Alcohol

We've all seen these or similar distressing headlines. Case in point - newspapers across the country carried frightening statistics reported by Joe Califano and the Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA). On national television programs, Califano reported horror stories of alcohol abuse among college students, associating it with assault, rape, and even murder. A CASA report asserted that "60 percent of college women who have acquired sexually transmitted diseases, including AIDS and genital herpes, were under the influence of alcohol at the time they had intercourse" "90 percent of all reported campus rapes occur when alcohol is being used by either the assailant or the victim" "The number of women who reported drinking to get drunk more than tripled between 1977 and 1993" "95 percent of violent crime on campus is alcohol-related."1 But relax. These assertions are not supported by the facts. According to an investigative reporter, one of these statistics "appears to have been pulled from thin air," another is based on no evidence whatsoever, another is based on one inadequate survey and is inconsistent with all other surveys, and a fourth is highly suspect at best. 2 (See reference #2 for additional specifics.) Even the most improbable of statistics are often repeated by news media as fact and become part of public belief. It is now commonly believed that the average young person will have seen 100,000 beer commercials between the age of two and eighteen But just think - sixteen years or about 5,844 days occur between a person's second and eighteenth birthday. To see 100,000 beer commercials in that period, a person would have to see an average of more than seventeen a day! Common sense alone should have been enough to dispel the myth. But this clearly absurd statistic has been gullibly repeated over and over: by the Center for Science in the Public Interest in the New York Times, ... Free Essays on Dangers Of Alcohol Free Essays on Dangers Of Alcohol We've all seen these or similar distressing headlines. Case in point - newspapers across the country carried frightening statistics reported by Joe Califano and the Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse (CASA). On national television programs, Califano reported horror stories of alcohol abuse among college students, associating it with assault, rape, and even murder. A CASA report asserted that "60 percent of college women who have acquired sexually transmitted diseases, including AIDS and genital herpes, were under the influence of alcohol at the time they had intercourse" "90 percent of all reported campus rapes occur when alcohol is being used by either the assailant or the victim" "The number of women who reported drinking to get drunk more than tripled between 1977 and 1993" "95 percent of violent crime on campus is alcohol-related."1 But relax. These assertions are not supported by the facts. According to an investigative reporter, one of these statistics "appears to have been pulled from thin air," another is based on no evidence whatsoever, another is based on one inadequate survey and is inconsistent with all other surveys, and a fourth is highly suspect at best. 2 (See reference #2 for additional specifics.) Even the most improbable of statistics are often repeated by news media as fact and become part of public belief. It is now commonly believed that the average young person will have seen 100,000 beer commercials between the age of two and eighteen But just think - sixteen years or about 5,844 days occur between a person's second and eighteenth birthday. To see 100,000 beer commercials in that period, a person would have to see an average of more than seventeen a day! Common sense alone should have been enough to dispel the myth. But this clearly absurd statistic has been gullibly repeated over and over: by the Center for Science in the Public Interest in the New York Times, ...

Gig

Gig Gig Gig By Maeve Maddox A reader objects to the expanding use of the noun gig beyond the meaning it has for musicians: I have received an invitation to attend a revegetation gig at a local riverside park in Brisbane Australia. I know that music bands play at gigs, but to use gig to mean a getting together of people for  any communal effort, seems pretty sloppy to me. Where does that gig come from anyway? The word gig, as both noun and verb, has a long history in English. Its etymology in any of its applications is unknown. In the 15th century, a gig was a child’s spinning toy. In the 18th century, a gig was a light one-horse carriage. When I was a child, I heard fishermen speak of gigs used to spear frogs and fish. Not until I went to college did I learn about the musical type of gig. Some definitions stress that a gig is of short duration: gig (noun): An engagement for a musician or musicians playing jazz, dance-music, etc. Specifically, a ‘one-night stand.’–OED gig (noun): A single professional engagement, usually of short duration, as of jazz or rock musicians.  Ã¢â‚¬â€œDictionary.com Here are examples of this use of gig: One of the biggest bands in the world, the Foo Fighters, are set to play two massive gigs in Australia and New Zealand to raise money for the victims of the floods and the earthquake. Welcome to the wonderful world of professional church and temple gigs in NYC. Gig to mean any kind of job is documented in the OED as early as 1964 in a citation that refers to a man (presumably a musician) who has to work â€Å"a mail-handler gig at the Post Office† to supplement his income. Nowadays, any kind of job–of long or short duration–is referred to as a gig: I quit that cushy job, sold my sports car, and hitchhiked to Louisiana, where I landed a spiritual gig working tugs and barges from Galveston, Texas thru Venice, Louisiana. The Green Rolling Hills, ed. V. J. Banis, Wildside Press, 2008. A college professor who lost his [tenured] job over anti-Semitic tweets is angry about losing the gig, but not sorry about his Twitter missives. Former Windows boss lands teaching gig at Harvard This housekeeping gig isn’t so bad. I get continental breakfasts every day and discount hotel rooms. Had my  first big catering gig  for 150 people Saturday afternoon. Gig is also used in the sense of session or appointment: The all-night study gig: a rite of passage Olympic womens hockey goalie scores practice gig with Edmonton Oilers Batting-practice gig with Bonds a dream Musicians may have introduced it into the language, but gig has caught on in colloquial speech as a useful word for everyone. Want to improve your English in five minutes a day? Get a subscription and start receiving our writing tips and exercises daily! Keep learning! Browse the Vocabulary category, check our popular posts, or choose a related post below:Avoid Beginning a Sentence with â€Å"With†Social vs. SocietalOne Scissor?

How the Impact of Culture Affects Ethical and Moral Communications Research Paper

How the Impact of Culture Affects Ethical and Moral Communications - Research Paper Example The basic process of communication has many barriers that impact its effectiveness and cultural is one of the elements of â€Å"noise† that can distort the understanding and interpretation of the message (John). Cultural differences in understanding, as well as message delivery, can become barriers to effective communication. And these differences have become more profound by the proliferation of mass media and social media promoted through the increasing use of the internet (Lauring). The impact of culture on meaningful business and inter-organizational communication is dependent upon the nature of cultural context, a theory proposed by Edward Hall. Based on his findings, people in organizations rely on other sensory and behavioral cues in sending, receiving and interpreting messages. The filters are socially constructed and so are these sensory cues thus each individual’s communication process is greatly influenced by the norms and value of his cultural context (Chita kornkijsil). In high context cultures, such as Chinese, Korean and Indian, people rely less on verbal cues and more on nonverbal elements like voice, facial expressions, tone and the implied meaning of the message rather than the literal meaning. In low context cultures including the American, Australian and the English cultures, on the other hand, the sender and receiver are more oriented towards the direct and literal meaning of the messages implied (Karin). Likewise in individualist cultures place more importance on personal goals rather than group interests in communication. On the other hand, the collectivist cultures induce people to think of themselves an extended part of the organization thus making inter-organizational communication more effective (Caroline). Hence, culture has the tendency to impact the moral and ethical dimensions of communication in a business as well as a social setting, this is because of the cognitive constraints which pertain to the different framing of the same idea and differing value systems. Secondly, there exist behavioral constraints in terms of the everyday behavioral practices including standards of proximity, eye contact, shaking hands etc. for example, in America culture, it is against the social etiquette to not look the other person in the eye while speaking to him while in Asian cultures, looking in the eye can mean disrespect. Likewise, while in American culture, greeting someone with a smile is again a social etiquette; in Germany, this can send a flirtatious sign to the opposite gender. Thirdly, the emotional constraints hinder and can impact the social and moral dimensions of communication. For example, in Japanese culture, silence is an integral part of work ethics, in Asian cultures silence is taken to be affirmation irrespective of the actual state of mind of the person whereas the American managers are more talkative and consider talking imperative to convey the right messages to their subordinates and co-w orkers (Sunita).

Interracial Marriages As Phenomenon In Modern Society Essay

Interracial Marriages As Phenomenon In Modern Society - Essay Example Landry has spent five years with the African American husband who was her college fellow. After the divorce, she married the Caucasian husband and has been living with him for four years. When she reflects back upon the two experiences, she realizes that race was never a strong issue. Landry parted ways with her ex-husband because there was the communication gap between them and he was disloyal to her. Besides, they had issues related to money. Therefore, when Landry searched for a husband the second time, she placed more emphasis upon his commitment towards budget and his tendency to exchange views frequently and maintain loyalty to her in marriage than the race he belonged to. Landry spent twelve years as a single after her divorce. In those years, she spent time with numerous men from different ethnic origins. Having dated men of different professions and racial backgrounds, Landry reached the conclusion that two people’s resemblance in the level of intelligence, personal i nterests, aspirations, and values were much stronger determinants of their compatibility with each other than race could ever be. Landry has evaluated the potential advantages and disadvantages of interracial marriages in this article. Discussing the pros of interracial marriages, Landry first discusses personal growth. The successful marriage requires the partners to grow together with the passage of time. Marital partners can enhance their growth by sharing with each other and appreciating the challenges arising from their cultural and racial differences. Landry has noticed that her Caucasian husband’s behavior is changed for the better after marrying her. He has started to understand how people of color may feel like strangers in settings where the others don’t look like them. He had a new experience of going to church with an African American wife as a lone white man.

Geography Study Chart Places and Regions Essay Example for Free

Geography Study Chart Places and Regions Essay Studying the World Regions and Places units in your course Many students find the course content on world regions, countries, and places to be some of the most challenging material to learn. The combination of student unfamiliarity with the world regions and the large volume of information to be learned can be overwhelming. To help you organize your studies, keep in mind WGU’s intention behind this course, which is for competent students to have a strong grasp of the major human and physical geographic conditions that interact to shape our world. When you are studying world region, we want you to emphasize the 1) â€Å"big picture† of the geographic conditions in each world region, 2) the major countries of that region, and 3) how that region relates to the rest of the world. Creating a consistent framework for studying each world region may help you retain the knowledge you need to be successful in this course aspect. We recommend trying to identify the 2-3 most significant / most important physical, cultural, economic, and political characteristics that exist within each world region. We do not guarantee that you are only tested on those features, but the process of identifying the most significant characteristics from the broader range of information about each world region is an excellent study strategy that also will ensure you leave our course with a strong, general knowledge of the major geographic conditions around the world. You are welcome to use the grid, below, to help organize your study material.

The Porter Analysis Essay examples -- essays research papers fc

Introduction   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  To perform the Industry Analysis it is better to follow Michael Porter's five forces model. This analysis framework was created so that it helps managers in their task to analyze competitive forces to the company. (Hill & Jones 80) This model is only one of the models that can be used for this task but it is one of the more popular models. The five forces that we will have to look at for this model are (1) the risk of new and potential competitors; (2) the bargaining power of suppliers; (3) the threat of substitute products; (4) the bargaining power of buyers; and (5) the degree of rivalry among established companies within an industry. (Hill & Jones 80) Barriers to Entry   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The first force in Porter's Five Forces Model is Entry Barriers. These factors are those that make it harder or easier for another company to enter into the industry. High barriers to entry will keep potential competitors out of the industry and low barriers to entry will give an opening for competitors to enter into the industry if the industry returns are high enough. (Hill & Jones 82) The fewer competitors in an industry the more the existing companies can take advantage of higher prices and better returns. One barrier to entry is brand loyalty. Brand loyalty is very important for the sales of IBM. When personal computers first came out you had to choose from IBM or Apple. Both computers were great machines but when IBM became a better-known computer the name was very recognizable. Today your choice in computers is much more extensive. Even though there are many more brands to choose from IBM is still a popular name. If not for it's own products it is for their platform it has. IBM compatible is a widely used term when talking about computers. Many people when looking for a new notebook computer will then think about the name first. You may think well if the other computers are compatible then why not just get something that is cheaper? This is an option but the other way of looking at it is the name brand will be a better product. A second barrier to entry is switching costs. When IBM and Apple were the only computer systems to choose from people had to make a choice. When you went to buy one system then you had to buy all the software that went along with that system. Ultimately, IBM became the mor... ...oking at industry analysis is that the Five Forces model looks at an industry as a whole instead of each individual company. Bibliography www.britannica.com Hill, C. & Jones, G. Strategic management: an integrated approach, 5th ed. Houghton Mifflin Company: Boston. 2001. www.ibm.com www.msn.encarta.com   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  World Wide Web March 13, 2001, Insight.com http://www.insight.com/web/apps/products/†¦esentation_print.php?product_id=IB264747U   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  World Wide Web March 13, 2001, Insight.com http://www.insight.com/web/apps/products/†¦5B%5D=IBT264792U&product_id%5B%5D=SOFX190   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  World Wide Web March 13, 2001, Apple.com http://www,apple.com/powerbook/ http://store.apple.com/1-800-MY-APPLE/We†¦ZWOLk9/0.3.0.3.29.23.0.3.3.3.1.1.0?80,30   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  World Wide Web March 13, 2001, ZD NET http://www.zdnet.com/pcmag/stories/reviews/0,6755,2676495,00.html   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  World Wide Web March 13, 2001, Personal Technology from the Wall Street Journal, http://ptech.wsj.com/archive/ptech-20010104.html Rupley, S. (2000, November 21). PC Magazine†¦ Apple's Latest (pg.83-84)

Project Report for Dairy Farms

PROJECT REPORT FOR DAIRY FARM WITH FOUR CROSS-BRED /INDIGENOUS DESCRIPTIVE DAIRY BREED COWS   Dairy farming is a profitable business. It provides an excellent opportunity for self employment of unemployed youth. It  Ã‚   is also an important source of income generation to small/marginal farmers and agricultural labourers. India is the largest milk producer of the world. The demand of milk & milk product is increasing rapidly There is immense scope of dairy farming in our country. The increasing cost of feed ingredients and its seasonal variability   can be reduced by undertaking fodder cultivation.Before starting a dairy farm the entrepreneurs/ farmers are advised to under go  Ã‚  Ã‚  training on dairy farming. They must check the following points before starting a dairy farm. 1. Availability of good quality dairy breed cows  Ã‚  in nearby livestock market 2. Nearness of the Farm to  Ã‚  Veterinary Hospital, Artificial Insemination Center/livestock Aid Centers, MPCS 3. Ma rketing facility of milk and milk product in non MPCS area 4. Availability of concentrates ,fodder & medicine in that locality. This project report is based on following assumption:- 1.Freshly calved crossbred/indigenous descriptive  Ã‚  (dairy Breed)cows in 1st or 2nd lactation will be purchased in two batches of  Ã‚  two  Ã‚  animals each at an interval of 5 to 6 months. 2. Availability of 0. 75 to 1(one)  Ã‚  acre of irrigated land is prerequisite for the project, in absence of irrigated land provision of well and pump set has to be included in the project report. 3. Cost of labour has not been taken into consideration since full time labour is not required for the small unit. Family labour will be utilized for maintenance of the dairy farm. 4. Cow dung produced will be utilized as Manure for fodder cultivation. . Cost of rearing calves not considered as it will be repealed by their sale 6. In case of death of cow new cow will be purchased from insurance claim money.  ·   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The scheme will be successful on the above guidelines if run by the dairy farmer on scientific lines. Housing for cows Floor  Ã¢â‚¬â€œ it should be Pucca, smooth strong concrete cemented, impervious to moisture ,and have slope 1 in 60 towards gutter. Plinth should be 2ft. higher than ground. Walls-3ft. high lengthwise brick or wall on sides, End wall should be solid made of bricks. Roof–  Ã‚  it should be 14-16ft. igh at the center and 8-9 ft. high on the side wall . there should be  Ã‚  hang over 3ft  Ã‚  beyond wall to prevent rain water  Ã‚  entering cow shade. Roof may be of asbestos,  or tile. thatched  Ã‚  roof can replace asbestos in low cost housing. Techno economic parameters|   | Type of Animal| CB Jersey CowOr indigenous descriptiveMilch breed| No. of Animals| 4| Cost of Animal (Rs. /animal) including transportation| 27000/cow| Average Milk Yield (litre/day)| 10| Floor space (sqft) per adult animal| 40| Floor spac e (sqft) per calf| 20| Cost of construction per sqft (Rs. )| 200| Cost of equipment per animal (Rs. | 1000| Cost of fodder cultivation (Rs. /acre/season)| 5000| Insurance premium (% per annum)| 5| Veterinary aid/animal/ year (Rs. )| 750| Cost of concentrate feed (Rs. /kg)| 12| Cost of dry fodder (Rs. /kg)| 1| Rate of interest (%)| 12| Repayment period (years)| 6| Selling price of milk/litre (Rs. /kg)| 21| Sale price of gunny bags (Rs. per bag)| 10| Lactation days| 280| Dry days| 150| DAILY FEEDING AND COST CHART FOR DAIRY COWS  | Item| FEEDING STUFF| COST/KGRs. | During lactation period| During dry period| | | | Quantity (kg)| Cost (Rs. )| Quantity (kg)| Cost (Rs. | i| Concentrate feed| 12| 3. 5| 42| 1| 13| ii| Green fodder| 1| 20| Home grown| 12| Home grown| iii| Dry fodder| 2| 5. 5| 11| 5| 10| | Total|   |   | 53|   | 22| Lactation chart/Dry chart| Sr. No| Particulars|   |   | Years|   |   | | |   | I| II| III| IV| V| Vi| i)| Lactation Days| |   |   |   | à ‚  |   | a)| First batch| 500| 560| 500| 420| 420| 500| b)| Second batch| 360| 420| 420| 420| 420| 420| | Total| 860| 980| 920| 840| 840| 920| ii)| Dry Days|   |   |   |   |   |   | a)| First batch| 220| 160| 220| 300| 300| 220| b)| Second batch| -| 300| 300| 300| 300| 300| | Total| 220| 460| 520| 600| 600| 520| Project cost and bank loan| Cost. In Rs. | I. | Capital cost|   |   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  II. | Cow shed for 4 cows 40sq. ft/cow @200/sqft  | 32000|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  III. | Calf pen for 4 calves 20 sq. ft. /calf @200/sq. ft. | 16000|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  IV. | Cost of 2 CB cows with minimum average 10 liter milk  Ã‚  yield /day @27000 with transportation| 108000|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  V. | Cost of one chaff cutter hand operated| 10000|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  VI. | Cost of dairy appliances @ 1000/cow| 4000|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  VII. | Cost of electrification of dairy farm with two electric fans| 10000|   | Tota l| 18000| Recurring cost to be capitalized| 1. Cost of feed for first batch of  Ã‚  one cows for one month as  per feed chart| 3180| 1. | Cost of insurance  Ã‚  2 animals @5% of animal cost| 5400| 1. | Cost of fodder cultivation in one  Ã‚  acres of land| 10000| 1. | Cost of medicine vaccine, electricity for the first  Ã‚  cow| 1500| 1. | Total recurring expenditure| 20080  | 1. | TOTAL PROJECT COST  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Say| 200080200000| 1. | Margin money 10% of project cost| 20000| 1. | Bank loan 90% of project cost| 180000| Item| Particulars| . Project period|   | 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| 1. | Feeding during lactation per iod vide yearly lactation days and feed cost as per chart| 45580| 51940| 48760| 44520| 44520| 48760| 1. | Feeding during dry period vide dry days and feed cost as per feed chart enclosed| 4840| 10120| 11440| 13200| 13200| 11440| 1. | Medicine vaccine veterinary aid| 3000| 3000| 3000| 3000| 3000| 3000| 1. | Insurance @5% of animal cost /year| 5400| 5400| 5400| 5400| 5400| 5400| 1. | Cost of fodder cultivation| 10000| 10000| 10000| 10000| 10000| 10000| 1. | other miscellaneous expenditure| 2000| 2000| 2000| 2000| 2000| 2000| 1. Total| 70820| 82460| 80600| 78120| 78120| 80600|   | INCOME|   |   |   |   |   |   | I. | Sale  Ã‚  of milk @Rs. 21/liter during lactation days with average milk yield /10  Ã‚  liter/day| 180600| 205800| 193200| 176400| 176400| 193200|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  II. | Sale of gunny bags| 640| 780| 740| 700| 700| 740|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  III. | Manure will be utilized in own farm|   |   |   |   |   |   |   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  IV. | Value of closing stock of 3cows(Depreciation on animal cost @10%/year)|   |   |   |   |   | 43200|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  V. | Value of building(Depreciation on [email  protected]%/year)|   |   |   |   |   | 19200|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  VI. Value of equipments(Depreciation on equipments @15%/year)|   |   |   |   |   | 2400|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  VII. | Total income| 181240| 206580| 193940| 177100| 177100| 258740|   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  VIII. | Gross profit| 110420| 124120| 113340| 98980| 98980| 178140|   | 1| 2| 3| 4| 5| 6| Capital Costs| 180000|   |   |   |   |   | Recurring Cost| 70820| 82460| 80600| 78120| 78120| 80600| Total Costs| 250820| 82460| 80600| 78120| 78120| 80600| Benefit| 181240| 206580| 193940| 177100| 177100| 258740| Net Benefit| -69580| 124120| 113340| 98980| 98980| 178140| PW Costs @ 15%| 451802. 8| PW Benefits @ 15%| 742490. 80| NPW| 290688. 62| B. C. Ratio| 1. 64:1| | | I. R. R. (%)| >25%| Year| Loan Outstanding| Gross Surplus| Interest| Principal| Total Repayment| Surplus| 1| 180000| 110420| 21600| 20000| 41600| 68820| 2| 16000| 124120| 19200| 40000| 59200| 64920| 3| 120000| 113340| 14400| 30000| 44400| 68940| 4| 90000| 98980| 10800| 30000| 40800| 58180| 5| 60000| 98980| 7200| 30000| 37200| 61780| 6| 30000| 178140| 3798| 30000| 33798| 144342| |

Thorn Queen Chapter Fourteen

â€Å"You!† Even with her hands bound, Jasmine didn't hesitate to attack me. She came tearing across the room, face filled with fury. I'm not sure if her intent was to kick me or simply throw herself at me, but she never even got close. My guards were on her in a flash, hauling her back. Magic started to flare around her, but one of the guards countered it with some weak nullifying magic. Her iron cuffs made magic hard to use, but the human in her gave her greater resistance. I turned on all of them incredulously. â€Å"That's not the missing girl. That's my sister! How could you not know that? She was Aeson's mistress!† It was Rurik who answered. â€Å"A lot of the guard has changed since Aeson's time. Many here came as a gift from King Dorian.† It was true. Dorian had warned that even though I'd won the Thorn Land fair and square, many of those who had served Aeson would have a hard time shaking that loyalty. Rurik had consequently sifted through the servants and guards, getting rid of those he didn't think could be trusted. â€Å"Still,† I said. â€Å"Someone should have known. Where the hell is Shaya?† â€Å"She is away, tending to administrative errands,† said the guard who'd been so excited initially. Now he seemed deeply embarrassed and upset. Jasmine, meanwhile, hadn't ceased in her struggles to break free of the guards. Without her magic, she wasn't much of a threat and seemed to realize using it was futile right now. She stood average height for a girl her age, but her build was slim, and she always seemed a little too skinny. Maybe that just ran in our family. Her eyes were large and blue-gray, reminiscent of storm clouds. â€Å"You can't hold me here, Eugenie!† she screamed. â€Å"I'm going to break free and kill you. Then I will be the one to bear our father's heir!† â€Å"Jesus Christ,† I muttered. â€Å"The song remains the same.† To be honest, I was actually kind of surprised Jasmine wasn't already pregnant and took it as a positive sign that she was still referring to it as a future event. The prophecy that loomed over both of us said that Storm King's daughter's son would be the one to lead the battle to conquer humanity. It hadn't specified which daughter, and apparently, Jasmine was still hell-bent on beating me to it. â€Å"It's going to happen,† Jasmine continued. â€Å"You can't stop it.† â€Å"Are you out of your mind?† I demanded. â€Å"You're fifteen! You have no business even talking about getting pregnant, let alone conquering the human world. You were raised there, for God's sake. Do you know how much Wil misses you?† â€Å"I hate them,† she spat. With the angry look in her eyes, I expected to hear thunder rumbling somewhere. â€Å"I hate them all. Even him. I never belonged there. This is my world.† â€Å"Not if I pack you up and send you to Catholic boarding school somewhere,† I mused, rather entertained by the idea. â€Å"They'd never be able to hold me.† â€Å"I was joking. Geez, doesn't sarcasm run in the family?† â€Å"You'll never be able to hold me either. Your men got lucky, and you know it. I've been dodging them for weeks, each time they thought they had me.† I rolled my eyes at her smug attitude, secretly wondering what the hell I was going to do with her now. I'd spent all this time hunting her and had almost gotten used to the idea that she was gone for good. Now that we had her, I was at a bit of a loss. Never would I have guessed that my guards would inadvertently stumble across her while looking for Moria. In the midst of my puzzling, Jasmine's words suddenly replayed through my mind. â€Å"My guys have never found you before,† I said. â€Å"Believe me, we've been looking.† Jasmine stared at me like I was crazy, which was something, considering that she was the one who needed to be on medication. â€Å"They almost got me last week. Maybe they were just too embarrassed about how I nearly drowned them with a tidal wave to tell you.† I shot a questioning look to Rurik, who shook his head. I turned back to her. â€Å"Those weren't my guys.† A strange thought suddenly occurred to me. â€Å"Were they human?† â€Å"No, of course not.† â€Å"Are you sure?† Jasmine gave me a narrow-eyed look. â€Å"I know the difference between humans and shining ones. You're the one who's in denial, trying to act like you're all-human.† I doubted she would say that if she had any idea what I'd been contending with here lately. Her obnoxious adolescent attitude aside, I was thinking again about what she'd said. She'd spoken of nearly being caught†¦by whom? I thought back to my meeting with Moria and her babbling about the Red Snake Man. I'd made a huge leap about Art being responsible for kidnapping her and the others. Again, I slowed down my racing mind to think of other options. It was possible that Moria's red snake was something entirely different. Or, maybe she'd just run into him here. Like all shamans, he probably crossed over every now and then. Maybe she'd seen the tattoo then. Or, perhaps most likely, was my earlier notion that Art had simply banished her back. All of that seemed more plausible. Yet was it enough to cause Moria such terror? That was the repeated question with no answer. And now here was Jasmine, also talking about abduction. It seemed too much of a coincidence that that would happen while other young girls were disappearing. â€Å"Were they brigands?† I asked Jasmine. â€Å"Like†¦sort of rough and dirty types?† â€Å"They were guards or some other kind of fighter,† she said. â€Å"Stop trying to act like you had nothing to do with it. I know the difference between a bunch of gross beggars and trained soldiers.† â€Å"Yeah, yeah, you're a freaking genius,† I muttered. â€Å"That's not hard, compared to you.† â€Å"Oh, look at that. Sarcasm is in the genes.† When I was younger, I'd hated being an only child and had longed for siblings. I'd never in my wildest dreams imagined this was what I'd end up with. â€Å"What did these guys look like? Were they in uniform?† My guards' uniforms were mismatched. They all had leather armor, but Dorian's recruits wore the green of his army while mine had blue left over from Aeson. Some just wore whatever color tunics they wanted. â€Å"I'm not telling you anything else,† she said. â€Å"Now let me go!† There was almost a whine to her command, making her seem very much her age and less like someone literally set on world domination. Of course, there was no way I was letting her out of this place, not when she was clearly willing to spread her legs for anyone who might help fulfill our deranged father's grand plans. Then, staring at her young face, a new thought occurred to me. I was always so concerned about her wanting to get pregnant that I never paid much attention to the idea of her facing the same risks I did. My queenly status had given me some reprieve, but there were still plenty of Otherworldly guys not above raping me. Jasmine had to be facing the same thing, the target of anyone who wanted to be the father of Storm King's heir. These soldiers she was talking about might have had no connection at all to Moria's abductors-if she had been abducted. Fuck. This was all hurting my brain. I needed to talk to Roland and Art before jumping to any more conclusions. And in the meantime, this was all good reason to keep Jasmine under lock and key. â€Å"Sorry,† I told her. â€Å"You aren't going anywhere. You'll be lucky if I don't break out the Depo-Provera and fill your cell full of abstinence propaganda.† â€Å"Cell? You are not locking me in any cell.† Her lips were puffed into a pout. Again, she seemed so much like any ordinary surly teen that I nearly laughed. She looked more like a girl who'd been grounded from texting than one who aspired to be an all-powerful fairy queen. When I didn't respond, the impact seemed to truly hit her. â€Å"You can't†¦you can't do that! Do you know who I am? I'm a princess. I'm Storm King's daughter! My son is going to rule the worlds.† I shook my head. â€Å"No, you're a self-absorbed brat in serious need of discipline and counseling.† â€Å"You can't do that!† â€Å"I can†¦or did you forget who I am? I'm the big sister who rules a kingdom and isn't going to let you jump all over this prophecy.† â€Å"You can't lock me up forever,† she warned. â€Å"She's right,† a voice behind me said. I turned and saw Ysabel hovering near the doorway. She didn't look terrified of me anymore, but she no longer bore that cocky arrogance. She looked cool and aloof. â€Å"You can't lock her up forever,† continued Ysabel. â€Å"You should kill her.† â€Å"What?† Both Jasmine and I spoke at the same time. Ysabel seemed perfectly blase about it all. â€Å"She's your greatest rival to bearing Storm King's grandson. So long as she lives, she always will be an obstacle. The only way you'll be free and retain your power is if she's gone.† I started to protest that I didn't want to beat Jasmine to the prophecy. Then, I realized that part didn't matter. It was Jasmine's own desire for getting pregnant that was the problem, and Ysabel was right to a certain extent. As long as Jasmine was around, I wouldn't have any peace. I slowly shook my head. â€Å"I'm not killing my own sister. But I am double-binding her. Somebody get another set of iron cuffs.† I saw a few guards flinch. Even with as little iron as the cuffs had, that was still more than most gentry could comfortably handle. Doubling it would stunt her magic even more, but that human blood was still going to give us trouble. â€Å"I want her cell guarded at all times,† I told Rurik. â€Å"With more than you usually would post. And make sure you've got guards that can actually use magic.† Someone had returned with the second set of cuffs by then, causing Jasmine to start up a new round of shrieks and protests. Rurik gave me a nod and then said in a low voice, â€Å"If I could speak to your majesty in private?† I arched an eyebrow. Rurik always obeyed me but rarely bothered with formalities or respect, which didn't bother me. In public, though, he always used my titles, and I wondered what was on his mind. We stepped out of the room, past a disapproving Ysabel, and came to a halt a little ways down the hall. â€Å"Keeping the girl locked and under guard might not be the best idea,† he said. I groaned. â€Å"Don't tell me you think I should kill her too.† He shrugged. â€Å"Dorian would tell you to. But if you insist on keeping her here, then get that demon of yours to guard her.† For a moment, I thought of the fire demons. Then, I realized he was using a more generalized term. â€Å"You mean Volusian?† â€Å"I'm not saying they'd do it†¦.† Rurik hesitated. â€Å"But I'm not saying they wouldn't either. A lot of those guards might be tempted by the thought of fathering the heir, and if she offered†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Good God. She's fifteen.† â€Å"Old enough. It didn't stop Aeson, and if she convinced one of the guards, her age wouldn't matter. I'm guessing your, uh, friend wouldn't be so easily swayed.† Volusian swayed by sex? Hardly. Particularly if he was under my commands. â€Å"Fine. I'll summon him.† Volusian would also stop any magic she could muster. â€Å"You might also consider finding a potion master to create a tincture of nightshade.† â€Å"A what?† â€Å"It's a drink that will inhibit her from using her magic.† â€Å"Isn't nightshade poisonous?† â€Å"Not to shining ones. Not if mixed with the right ingredients. With her human blood, it will, ah, leave her a little†¦disoriented. But it won't kill her.† â€Å"I'm not going to keep her in a drugged stupor.† I started to return to the room and then paused to give Rurik a canny look. â€Å"Why warn me? I remember a time when you wanted to father the heir. Why not take your own shot?† â€Å"With her?† Rurik snorted. â€Å"I still wouldn't hesitate to beget Storm King's grandson-but she's not the one. The heir's mother should be a warrior, and unfortunately, that only leaves you.† â€Å"You're never getting near my bed, Rurik.† â€Å"Yes, I've deduced as much. But I would still support Storm King's grandson and would be nearly as happy for my lord the Oak King to father him.† â€Å"Dorian? That's the only other alternative as far as you're concerned?† Rurik's expression seemed to wonder that there could be any question. â€Å"Who else?† I shook my head and left him, off to order the imprisonment of my sister. Before setting Volusian on permanent guard duty, I had one brief task for him. He wasn't very happy about it, not that that came as any real surprise. â€Å"My mistress, as usual, is intent on furthering my eternal torment.† â€Å"I don't really see how watching a teenage girl is that bad-for you, anyway. It's going to be a lot harder on her.† â€Å"I am a being of considerable power. I cannot die. If you insist on enslaving me, you should use my abilities to bring nations to their knees.† Volusian's red eyes narrowed ever so slightly. â€Å"Instead, my mistress dispatches me to supervise children and deliver love notes.† â€Å"It's not a love note! Just ask him, okay?† Volusian blinked once and then vanished. While he couldn't teleport, exactly, he could travel much faster than human or gentry. After Jasmine's capture and Moria implicating Art, I wanted nothing more than to sit down with Kiyo. I needed to talk this out. I wasn't used to this sort of turmoil and indecision in my life. I longed for the days when my job had simply been to go out, find the monster, and get rid of it. It had been a lot easier than this sort of deliberation. Kiyo, to my knowledge, was with Maiwenn, and I'd dispatched Volusian to see if Kiyo would come to me later. It was the closest I could get to making a phone call in the Otherworld-but still far from it, seeing that it took Volusian about twenty minutes to get back to me. â€Å"You see?† I said when he appeared in my bedroom. â€Å"That wasn't so bad.† â€Å"The kitsune says he will come to you in two hours,† Volusian said in his flat voice, not deigning to acknowledge my comment. Two hours. Well, it was better than nothing. I sighed. â€Å"Okay. Thanks.† Volusian simply stared. My gratitude meant nothing to him. â€Å"Alright. Go watch Jasmine then. Don't let her escape, and for God's sake, don't let her get pregnant.† â€Å"For how long?† â€Å"Until I say so,† I snapped. The malice radiated off Volusian, but my mastery of him would not let him disobey. Demeaning task or not, he had no choice. He vanished. Once alone, I lay back on my bed, hoping two hours would go by quickly. Like everything else among gentry royalty, the bed I'd inherited was plush and luxurious, with a thick down mattress. The covers were heavy brocade and almost never needed in this weather-but they felt great to lie against. It wasn't quite sunset outside, but the light was fading, casting long shadows onto the room's heavy stone walls. I'd need to light torches soon. A knock at the door forced me upright. â€Å"Yeah?† It was Nia. She gave a polite curtsey. â€Å"Your majesty, you have a guest.† For a glorious moment, I thought it was Kiyo. Then: no. It was too soon. And Nia wouldn't have announced him. Everyone around here knew enough to let him in by now. â€Å"Who?† â€Å"Prince Leith of the Rowan Land.† â€Å"Leith?† I said, certain I'd misheard. â€Å"I just saw him, like, six hours ago.† Nia shook her head helplessly. â€Å"He's here, that's all I know.† I swung my legs over the bed's edge and stood up, slipping my socked feet into short leather boots. Leith? What was he doing here? A flash of panic went through me. Had something gone wrong in Westoria? If so, wouldn't my own people have told me? They'd taken him to my parlor, where he sat on the edge of one of the satin-lined chairs. He sprang up at my approach, hurrying over to catch my hands in his. He leaned down and kissed them. â€Å"Your majesty. Thank you for seeing me so unexpectedly. I'm sure I'm interrupting all sorts of important things.† â€Å"Not so much,† I said, withdrawing my hands. â€Å"And you should really just call me Eugenie now. What's up? Is there a problem?† Around here, who knew what could go wrong? Famine, flood, locusts†¦ â€Å"A problem with-oh, no. Everything in Westoria is great. We made amazing progress today.† I relaxed. â€Å"Good. I was worried.† Leith shook his head, eager to reassure me. â€Å"No, no problems there. I just†¦well, I know this is strange, but I just had to come see you. That is, I had to ask you something. I feel like an idiot, though.† I frowned. â€Å"You can ask me anything. What's going on? Are you okay?† â€Å"Oh, yes.† His embarrassment grew. â€Å"But after today†¦I just had to hear something from you.† â€Å"Okay, ask.† â€Å"Are you involved with the Oak King?† â€Å"Involved with†¦what, you mean romantically? With Dorian? No!† Leith's face shone like the sun. â€Å"You mean it? When I saw you together today. The way he spoke†¦and the way you two interacted†¦well, I thought for sure the rumors were true.† â€Å"What rumors?† I asked warily. â€Å"That you were still lovers.† â€Å"Where are you hearing these rumors?† â€Å"Pretty much everywhere.† â€Å"Well, the answer is no. Absolutely not.† â€Å"Really?† â€Å"Really.† Leith exhaled with palpable relief. He reached for my hand, and I stepped back, putting space between us. The rapture on his face made me uneasy. â€Å"Then there's still a chance.† â€Å"A chance for what?† I asked. â€Å"You and me.† â€Å"You and-oh, Leith, no.† It was just like everyone had said. â€Å"I like you-you're really great-but there isn't going to be anything happening with you and me.† â€Å"But†¦Ã¢â‚¬  He moved forward again, and again, I moved away. â€Å"But you keep wanting to see me and have asked me to be a part of your kingdom. I just assumed†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"No, no†¦Leith, I'm involved with someone already†¦you know, Kiyo? The kitsune? We're together.† He frowned and was still too close to my personal space. â€Å"I didn't think it was a serious romance. I thought he was just a†¦Ã¢â‚¬  â€Å"Fling?† I suggested. â€Å"Yes. I mean, someone like you couldn't take him as a true consort.† I sighed. â€Å"Why does everyone say that? I love Kiyo. We're together. We're going to be together for a very long time.† Leith's earlier joy was rapidly giving way to distress. â€Å"But†¦I mean, with my background and the way we get along, we're a perfect match. Admit it: you are usually happy to see me.† â€Å"Of course I am. But that's because I want to be your friend, not encourage you romantically. I like you-like hanging out with you. But that's it. I'm sorry. I'm sorry if I led you on.† â€Å"It has to be more than friendship. I know it is for me.† He sighed. â€Å"I've never been able to talk to someone so easily. It feels natural.† â€Å"That's because you guys always make everything so†¦exaggerated. There are probably a dozen girls you could sit down with and have great conversations with if you just got rid of the formality.† â€Å"No.† The grief on his face was killing me. â€Å"It's something about you. I just can't help it. I'm falling more and more in love with you every day.† â€Å"You barely know me! You can't love me.† â€Å"I do,† he said in a low voice, and some of that glowing passion returned. â€Å"From the moment I saw you. Mother had said you'd be a suitable match politically, but even if that weren't true, I'd still love you. I've never met anyone like you, Eugenie. So brave and beautiful†¦I'd want to be with you even if we weren't ruling a kingdom together.† â€Å"Leith,† I said, trying hard to make my voice stern. God-dammit. Why couldn't he have been an annoying jerk like most of my other would-be suitors? Why did he have to be a nice guy? With great effort, I tried to let him down easy instead of in my usual harsh way. â€Å"I meant it: I like you. But that's it. I value your help and your friendship, but I'm not leaving Kiyo.† â€Å"But I love you.† It was weak and plaintive. I shook my head. â€Å"I'm sorry.† His face fell, and he turned away, wrapped in despair. He started to walk toward the door and then abruptly turned, eyes alight once more. â€Å"If things end between you and the kitsune†¦then I'd be next in line, right?† â€Å"Next in line? Er, well†¦Ã¢â‚¬  Why couldn't I just lie and say yes? Or why not use a â€Å"I don't want to ruin our friendship† kind of crap line? â€Å"I don't think so, Leith. I just don't think I could ever feel that way about you.† Leith stared at me wide-eyed for several moments, and then at last, his features tightened. â€Å"I see. I'm sorry to have taken your time, your majesty. Your workers in Westoria understand my task and should no longer require my help.† He gave a small, polite bow and then hurried out the door. â€Å"Leith†¦Ã¢â‚¬  I took a few steps forward, my stomach sinking. I felt horrible. I knew he'd had a crush on me, but I hadn't thought it was much more than the usual Otherworldly attractions I experienced. His face at the end there had broken my heart. I hadn't wanted to hurt him, particularly after all he'd done for me. Dejected, I returned to my bedroom and ordered wine sent up. It arrived in a jewel-encrusted pitcher, complete with a heavy golden goblet. Had to love gentry room service. I declined any requests to see anyone until Kiyo arrived. I sat down on the floor, leaning against the bed and wondering how much of the wine I could get through before he arrived. To my surprise, all of it. I had no clock there but was pretty sure more than two hours had passed. I'd drunk goblet after goblet, thinking about Jasmine, Leith, and Art-and finding no resolution for any of them. I was staring at the bottom of the empty pitcher, pondering the time, when I heard a soft knock at my door. Finally! I stood up and felt the world sway around me. I gripped the bed for support. â€Å"Kiyo?† But it wasn't him. It was Shaya. Like Rurik, she'd dropped a lot of formalities and didn't bother with a curtsey. Her face was troubled, and I saw her clever eyes assess me and my drunkenness in a matter of seconds. â€Å"I'm sorry to bother you†¦but a messenger just arrived from the Willow Land.† The anger I'd been kindling against Kiyo's tardiness ran cold. â€Å"Oh my God. Is he okay?† Shaya hesitated and then gave a swift nod. â€Å"As far as I know, he's fine. It's Queen Maiwenn everyone's concerned about†¦she's gone into labor.†

Image Processing and Enhancement Essay Example

Image Processing and Enhancement Essay Example Image Processing and Enhancement Essay Image Processing and Enhancement Essay Remote sensing (RS), also called earth observation, refers to obtaining information about objects or areas at the Earth? s surface without being in direct contact with the object or area. Humans accomplish this task with aid of eyes or by the sense of smell or hearing; so, remote sensing is day-today business for people.Remote sensing can be broadly defined as the collection and interpretation of information about an object, area, or event without being in physical contact with the object. Remote-sensing data play a growing role in studies of natural and semi natural environments, a role that stretches from a visual interpretation to sophisticated extraction of information by advanced image analysis and statistical algorithms. In their raw form, as received from imaging sensors mounted on satellite platforms, remotelysensed data generally contain flaws or deficiencies with respect to a particular application.To extract basic information from remotely-sensed data the flaws or deficiencies must remove or corrected. In this paper I will try to describes some important general means of image correction because it is difficult to decide what should be included under the heading of image correction, since the definition of what is, or is not, a deficiency in the data depends to a considerable extent on the use to which those data are to be put. So I will discuss the title like image Preprocessing, Digital image, image enhancement and other important titles related to Image correction and better image interpretation means.The other idea raised and discussed in this paper is the relationship between vegetation index and vegetation degradation by using remotely sensed data. 2. Function of image preprocessing and its importance for image Analysis The function of an image preprocessing is a means to applying some methods in order to correct image deficiencies and removal of flaws before using the images for other purposes. Mather and Koch (2011) stated that In their raw form, as received from imaging sensors mounted on satellite platforms, remotelys 1 a) before haze removal b) After haze removal 2 Figure 3 Haze Reduction 5 B) Sun angle correction According to Bakker and et al. (2011) stated that The position of the sun relative to the earth changes depending on time of the day and the day of the year. As a result, the image data of different seasons are acquired under different solar illumination. An absolute correction involves dividing the DN-values in the image data by the sine of the solar elevation angle. Landsat 7 ETM+ color infrared composites acquired with different sun angle. (A) The left image was acquired with a sun elevation of 37Â ° and right image. B) With a sun elevation of 42Â °. The difference in reflectance is clearly shown. (C) (B) The left image was corrected to meet the right image. Figure 4 Sun angle Correction 2. 2. Geometric Correction Geometric distortion is an error on image which occurred by one of the two possibilities either internally on the geometry of the sensor or externally the altitude of the sensor or the shape of the object. Supporting to this idea Kuznetsov and et al. (2012) describe that geometric distortion is an error on image, between the actual image coordinates and the ideal image coordinates.Geometric distortion is classified in to internal distortion resultin g from the geometry of the sensor and external distortion resulting from the altitude of the sensor or the shape of the object. 6 To correct such geometric distortion on the image we should use different geometric correction methods. Murayam and Dassanayake (2010) stated that geometric corrections include correcting for geometric distortions due to sensor-Earth geometry variations, and conversion of the data to real world coordinates (e. g. latitude and longitude) on the Earths surface.Conversion of the data to real world coordinates are carried by analyzing well distributed Ground Control Points (GCPs). This is done in two steps Geo-referencing: This involves the calculation of the appropriate transformation from image to terrain coordinates. Landsat 30m ETM+ Image Quickbird . 7m Natural Color Image Ground control points are identified between the two images in recognizable locations. These points should be static relative to temporal change. In this case road intersections are the best source of GCP’s. Features that move through time (i. e. horelines, etc. ) should be avoided if possible. Figure 5 Georeferencing Geocoding: This step involves resembling the image to obtain a new image in which all pixels are correctly positioned within the terrain coordinate system. Resampling is used to determine the digital values to place in the new pixel locations of the corrected output image. Figure 6 Geo coding 7 There are different techniques of resampling methods according Murayam and Dassanayake (2010) there is three techniques of resampling: 1. Nearest Neighborhood 2. Bi-linear interpolation 3. Cubic Convolution 1.Nearest Neighborhood According to Rees (2011) the nearest neighbor approach uses the value of the closest input pixel for the output pixel value. To determine the nearest neighbor, the algorithm uses the inverse of the transformation matrix to calculate the image file coordinates of the desired geographic coordinate. The pixel value occupying the c losest image file coordinate to the estimated coordinate will be used for the output pixel value in the geo-referenced image. This means that the nearest pixel value has more influence than apart pixel. Figure7.Nearest Neighborhood ADVANTAGES: Output values are the original input values. Other methods of resampling tend to average surrounding values. This may be an important consideration when discriminating between vegetation types or locating boundaries. Since original data are retained, this method is recommended before classification. Easy to compute and therefore fastest to use. DISADVANTAGES: Produces a choppy, stair-stepped effect. The image has a rough appearance relative to the original un-rectified data. Data values may be lost, while other values may be duplicated.Figure 1 shows an input file (orange) with a yellow output file superimposed. Input values closest to the center of each output cell are sent to the output file to the right. Notice that values 13 and 22 ar e lost while values 14 and 24 are duplicated. 8 2. Bi-linear interpolation The bilinear interpolation approach uses the weighted average of the nearest four pixels to the output pixel. Figure8. Bi-linear interpolation ADVANTAGES: Stair-step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is reduced. Image looks smooth. DISADVANTAGES: Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging neighboring values together. Is computationally more expensive than nearest neighbor. 3. Cubic Convolution The cubic convolution approach uses the weighted average of the nearest sixteen pixels to the output pixel. The output is similar to bilinear interpolation, but the smoothing effect caused by the averaging of surrounding input pixel values is more dramatic. Figure9. Cubic Convolution ADVANTAGES: Stair-step effect caused by the nearest neighbor approach is reduced. Image looks smooth. DISADVANTAGES: Alters original data and reduces contrast by averaging neighboring values together. Is computa tionally more expensive than nearest neighbor or bilinear interpolation. In general image preprocessing is very essential step for better image analysis and interpretation because it corrects different types of image distortion. 9 Similar to this idea Murayam and Dassanayake (2010) stated that preprocessing includes data operation which normally precedes further manipulation and analysis of the image data to extract specific information. These operations aim to correct distorted or degraded image data to create a more faithful representation of the original scene. . Digital Image Formats and Its Arrangement According to Visual Resource Centre School of Humanities (2011) Digital images are electronic representations of images that are stored on a computer. The most important thing to understand about digital images is that you can? t see them and they don? t have any physical size until they are displayed on a screen or printed on paper. Until that point, they are just a collection o f numbers on the computer? s hard drive that describe the individual elements of a picture and how they are arranged.These elements are called pixel and they are arranged in a grid format with each pixel containing information about its color or intensity. Most of the time Band interleaved by line (BIL), band interleaved by pixel (BIP), and band sequential (BSQ) take as image digital format but this is not true rather they are schemes for storing the actual pixel values of an image in a file. Figure 10 Digital Data Format 10 According to ESRI resource center there are three common image digital formats these are Band interleaved by line (BIL), band interleaved by pixel BIP), and band sequential (BSQ) are three common methods of organizing image data for multiband images. BIL, BIP, and BSQ are not in themselves image formats but are schemes for storing the actual pixel values of an image in a file. While Visual Resource Centre School of Humanities (2010) there are four main file form ats for images: TIFF, JPEG, PNG and GIF. TIFF (Tagged Image File Format) Description: TIFF images are usually used for master image files. They contain image information in a lossless format (i. e. no image information is lost when images are saved) and so tend to be fairly large in size.They are therefore a good format for archiving images, but the large file size makes it an unsuitable format for use in web delivery or in presentation software, such as PowerPoint. Good for: master copies of images as all image information is retained when files are saved (lossless format). But: file sizes tend to be large due to lossless format, so TIFF files are not suitable for web delivery or inclusion in PowerPoint presentations. JPEG (Joint Photographic Experts Group) Description: This is the main format that is used for photographic-type images on the web.It is a „lossy? format: images are compressed when saved and so image information is lost each time the image is edited and saved. T he benefit of compression is a reduction in file size, but the down side is that if too much compression is applied, visible artefacts such as highlighting around areas of high contrast may occur. The following images show the effects on quality and file size of differing levels of compression on the same JPEG image notice the blurring around the edges of the statue in the final image.Good for: web delivery of photographic images due to ability to compress images without too much loss of quality, therefore giving smaller file sizes than TIFF formats. But: too much compression can lead to a loss of quality so care needs to be taken with the quality setting used when saving images. GIF (Graphical Interchange Format) 11 Description: Another format encountered on the Internet, the GIF format is usually used for icons or graphics that contain a limited range of flat colors. It is a lossless format (no information is lost when saving), but as limited color capabilities and so is not suit able for displaying photographs. Good for: web delivery of icons and graphics due to small file size and lossless format. But: supports limited range of colors, so is only suitable for certain types of images. PNG (Portable network graphics) Description: PNG is a relatively new web graphics format, designed primarily to replace the GIF format for use on the Internet, and potentially rival TIFF in the long term as an archival format due to its better compression performance.Its main advantages over GIF are an improved lossless compression method and support for „true color. Although software support for the PNG format has been slow in developing, this is now beginning to change and it may become a more common format in the future. Good for: web delivery due to lossless compression technique resulting in files of small size but high quality. But: JPEG format gives better results for photographic images, and older web browsers and programs may not support the PNG format. 4. Purpo se of image enhancement and Method of Image Enhancement 4. 1.Purpose of Image Enhancement The purpose of image enhancement is forming good contrast to visualize images in a better way in order to understand or extract the intended information from the image. Similarly Vij and singh (2008) discussed Image enhancement is a mean as the improvement of an image appearance by increasing dominance of some features or by decreasing ambiguity between different regions of the image. Image enhancement processes consist of a collection of techniques that seek to improve the visual appearance of an image or to convert the image to a form better suited for analysis by a human or machine.The other writers Shankar Ray (2011) also describe, Image enhancement is the modification of image, by changing the pixel brightness values, to improve its visual impact. Image enhancement techniques are performed by deriving the new brightness value for a pixel either from its existing value or from the brightnes s values of a set of surrounding pixels. 12 4. 2. Method of Image Enhancement According to Department of US Army (2003) method of image enhancement classified in to four these are 1) Contrast enhancement 2) band ratio 3) spatial filtering and 4) principle components.The type of enhancement performed will depend on the appearance of the original scene and the goal of the interpretation. This indicate that performing all methods of enhancement for one image may not be necessary and selection of methods are vary depending on for what purpose the image is prepared or what type of information is extracted from the image. 1) Contrast enhancement-such types of enhancement mostly occur to increase the brightness of the image by changing the DN Values of the image. According to Al-amri (2011) one of the most important quality factors in satellite images comes from its contrast.Contrast enhancement is frequently referred to as one of the most important issues in image processing. Contrast str etching is an enhancement method performed on an image for locally adjusting each picture element value to improve the visualization of structures in both darkest and lightest portions of the image at the same time. Of course there are different techniques of image contrast enhancement like Liner contrast, histogram equalization, histogram stretch and the like but the mean idea is discussed on above even though there is slight difference performing each techniques.Before contrast enhancement Figure 11 Contrast Enhancement 13 After contrast enhancement 2) Band ratio-using contrast techniques help to enhance the images with related to brightness problems but this technique cannot solve problems like shadowiness and the like such image enhancement is takes place by using band ratio techniques. According to Department of US Army (2003) stated that Band ratio is commonly used band arithmetic method in which one spectral band is proportional with another spectral band.This simple method r educes the effect of shadowing caused by topography, highlights particular image elements, and accentuates temporal differences. 3) Spatial filtering –this types of enhancement is very important to avoid over exaggerated details for specific place in the image. Murayam and Dassanayake (2010) describe spatial filtering as spatial filter is designed to emphasize larger, homogeneous areas of similar tone and reduce the smaller detail in an image, this serve to smooth the appearance of an image. Low pass filters are very useful for reducing random noise.It is occasionally advantageous to reduce the detail and exaggerated particular features in an image 4) Principal components- According to Department of US Army (2003) the principal component analysis (PCA) is a technique that transform the pixel brightness values. These transformations compress the data by drawing out maximum covariance and remove correlated elements. The other writer Rees (2001) also stated that the principal co mponents of a multiband image are the set of linear combination of the bands that are both independent of and also uncorrelated with, one another. . Purpose of image Transformation and Method of Image Transformation 5. 1. Purpose of image Transformation Image transformation is a means to re-express an image in a different manner which means it gives a chance to Cooke in good way. According to UNEP (2005) The Term: Transform means arithmetic operator It is all arithmetic operations that allow the generation of a new composite image from 1 or 2 or more bands of a multi-spectral, multi-temporal, multi-frequencies (wavelengths), multi-polarization, multi-incidence angle images.The resulting image may have properties which makes it suitable to particular purpose than the original. 14 1) New Information extraction from the exited data like Change detection, vegetation info, geological info 2. Data dimensionality reduction storage efficiency processing efficiency reduce the # of bands and reduce time 3. Produce more physically relevant spectral feature space Similarly Mather and Koch (2011) discussed an image transform is an operation that reexpresses in a different, and possibly more meaningful, form all or part of the information content of a multispectral or grey scale image.From the above idea we can understand that by applying image transformation with different transformation techniques we can extract new information with best visualization and minimum storage. 5. 2. Method of Image Transformation Different writers classified method of image transformation differently because of their purpose study for this paper I choose UNEP (2005) Method of image transformation. According to UNEP(2005) Method Image transformation can be classified into 6 these are 1. Simple Arithmetic Operations 2. Empirically-Based Image Transformation 3.Principal Component Analysis 4. Multiple Discriminant Analysis 5. Hue, Saturation and Intensity (HIS) 6. Fourier Transformation 1. Simple Arithmetic Operations Applying one of arithmetic operation among Addition, Subtraction, Multiplication, and Division to perform simple transformation. They performed on 2 or more co-registered images of the same geographical area. The images could be separate spectral bands from single MSS or TM data set or they may be individual band s from data sets that have been imaged at different dates. 1. Image Addition If multiple images of a given region are available for approximately the same date and if part of one of the images has some noise (spectral problem, haze, fog, cloud), then that part can be compensated from the other images available. 15 1. 2 Image Subtraction: To assess the degree of change in an area, two dates of coo-registered images can be used with subtraction operation. October 1988 Figure 12. Change Detection 1. 3 Image Multiplication: May 1992 If the analyst is interested in a part of an image, then extracting that area can be done by multiplying the area by 1 and t he rest by 0.This applied only when the boundary of the area of interest is irregular. 1. 4 Image Division: Image Ratio: Dividing the pixels in one image by the corresponding pixels in a second image. Most commonly used transformation. It is very important transformation techniques because ? ? Certain aspect of the shape of spectral reflectance curves of the different earth surface cover types can be brought out by ratio. Undesirable effects on the recorded images such as the effect of variable illumination resulting from variation in topography can be reduced by ratio. . Empirically-Based Image Transformation Experience with Landsat MSS data for agriculture areas and with the difficulties encountered in the use of ratio transformed and Principal Component, led to the development of Image Transformation that was based on the OBSERVATIONS: 16 2. 1 Perpendicular Vegetation Index PVI A plot of reflectance measured in the visible red band against reflectance in the Near IR for a partly vegetated area will results in a plot like and use soil line for calculating vegetation distance from the line two-dimension space. . 2 Tasseled Cap Transformation PVI considers spectral variation in two of the 4 Landsat MSS bands and use distance from a soil line in the two-dimension space defined by these two MSS bands a a measure of biomass of green leaf area. 3. Principal Component Analysis PCA Adjacent bands in Multi-spectral Scanner remotely sensed data (images) are generally correlated. Multi-band visible/NIR images of vegetated areas show negative correlation between NIR and visible red bands, and positive correlation among the visible bands Green and Red.This is because of the spectral characteristics of vegetation are such that as vigor or greenness of the vegetation increase the red reflectance diminishes and NIR increases. The presence of correlation among the bands of the optical reflected MSS images implies that there is REDUNDENCY in the data. This means that some inf ormation is being repeated. It is the repetition of the information between bands that is reflected in the correlation. Principal component analysis helps to remove such redundancy through compress the data by drawing out maximum covariance and remove correlated elements. 4.Multiple Discriminant Analysis Image transformation using linear function called discriminant function. It represents the coordinate axes in the dimensional space that defined by the spectral bands which making up the data. As in PCA the relationship between the spectral bands and the discriminant functions axis derived and the coordinates of the individual pixel vector computed in terms of discriminant function. A simple example: if you have two groups of land with special reflectance that can be discriminated on the basis of the measurement in the dimensional space or in the coordinate axis.Some scientist thinks that this transformation made for special assignment. But despite of that it is found very useful it those special cases where you cannot find solution for them unless using this transformation. 5. Hue, Saturation and Intensity (HIS) Hue: angular variable of the direction of colors Saturation: lightness of the color (toward white) 0-255 scale the amount of white in the color Intensity: color strength 17 I = R+G+B H= (G – B)/I 3B S= (I – 3B)/ I 6. Fourier Transformation All five transformations discussed, they were using multidimensional space (multi-band) of remotely sensed data.Fourier Transformation using single band. The main idea of this transformation is that it uses the gray scale value, which forming a single image or single band, can be viewed as 3-D surface. The raw and column (X,Y) or spatial coordinates defining two axis (X,Y) and the gray scale 0255 value at each pixel giving the 3rd dimension. Therefore, the resulting image or product will show the frequency of certain feature all around the image. So it is a kind of histogram of the image in 3-D. 6. Ve getation index and relation with vegetation degradation 6. What is Vegetation Index? According to Jackson and huete (1991) Vegetation index is calculating of spectral band of data by combining two or more spectral bands of data. Vegetation indices are formed from combinations of several spectral values that are mathematically recombined in such a way as to yield a single value indicating the amount or vigor of vegetation within a pixel . Campbell, (1996) cited in Freitas and et. al (2005). 6. 2 Vegetation index and degradation –the best method of vegetation index is NDVI which is a normalized vegetation index .It a good means to assess the amount of greenness an area in th inverse NDVI indicates the level of degradation of an area. For example Take Bahirdar image in 1990 winter season and calculate the NDVI value and get a result of 0. 7 and after 10 years in2000 take another image of the same season and calculate the NDVI value and get a result of 0. 2. These indicates that in 1990 Bahirdar was covered by green vegetation while the 2000 image show that most of the areas covered by vegetation is degraded and covered by rocks.If the NDVI value approaches to1 the area has good vegetation cover, if the NDVI value approaches to 0 the area has less vegetation which means the area is covered by rocks and if the NDVI value is negative the area has no vegetation rather the area is covered by snow. 18 7 Digital image classification 7. 1 What is Digital Image